A Defence of Annihilation

Without doubt first century Jews believed in hell for images such as fire, darkness and laments are all too frequently encountered in their literature. One may suppose if Jesus disagreed with the Second Temple idea of hell he would have corrected their belief.
Instead Jesus chose to use the same types of images, including everlasting fire (Matthew 18:8-9, 25:41), everlasting punishment (Matthew 25:4), he warned the Pharisees; ‘you serpents, you brood of vipers, how are you to escape being sentenced to hell (Matthew 23:33)’ and told poignant parables including the destruction of weeds in a fiery furnace (Matthew 13: 42-43) and of unfaithful servants who were thrown into outer darkness where there was gnashing of teeth (Matthew 22:13,25:30).

Jesus believed in hell; no doubt, but when we try to work out what constitutes hell things become less certain. Matthew 25:46, Revelation 14:9-11 and Luke 16:19-31 all seem to describe hell (Gehenna[1]) as a place where indestructible souls lament eternally. ‘I may therefore use the opinion of Plato’ writes the great apologist Tertullian[2] that ‘every soul is immortal’ and immortal souls must persist; either in heaven or hell.

Augustine, similarly convinced by Plato’s conception of an immortal soul, formalized Tertullian’s immortality of the soul into his own Greco-Roman framework characterised by both an eternal heaven and an eternal hell. But for many Christians eternal punishing is too brutal and cannot be squared against their conviction that God is love. There are also eschatological problems. Chief among them is the apocalyptic claim that God will make all things new (Revelation 21:5) - for how can God make all things new if damned souls are to reside in hell forever?

According to F. Bruce[3] our ‘traditional thinking about the ‘never dying soul’, which owes so much to our Greco-Roman heritage, makes it difficult for us to appreciate Paul’s point of view.’  Instead Paul used words like death, perishing and destruction which better aligned to his Jewish heritage in which the wicked vanished ‘like smoke’ (Psalms 37:20) ’like a dream when one awakes’ (Psalms 78:10), they will ‘not be remembered (Psalms 9:6)’ but arelike chaff from the summer threshing floor that the wind carries away, ‘not a trace of them can be found (Daniel 2:35)’, ‘they will be consumed like entangled thorn bushes, like the drink of drunkards, like very dry stubble (Nahum 1:10)’, ‘the wicked are swept away (Proverbs 10:25)’, ‘their lamp extinguished (Proverbs 24:20)’.
And Paul is not the only New Testament author who compares eternal life to death (Romans 6:23). Matthew compares eternal life to destruction (7:13-14), to loosing life (10:37-39) while John compares eternal life to perishing (3:16), to condemnation (3:36), to no life at all (1 John 5:12) and plainly calls the lake of fire the second death (Revelation 21:8).
R. F. Weymouth[4] concludes; ‘my mind fails to conceive a grosser misinterpretation of language then when the five or six strongest words the Greek tongue possesses, signifying destroy, or destruction are explained to mean maintaining an everlasting but wretched existence. To translate black as white is nothing to this’.
So what do we do with the images of eternal lament so often personified in middle age art? The first of these is the worm that does not die, and the fire that is not quenched (Mark 9:48 see also Luke 3:17). This image is also found in the prophets; ‘they will go out and observe the corpses of those who rebelled against me, for the maggots that eat them will not die, and the fire that consumes them will not die out (Isaiah 66:24)’ and; ‘my anger will blaze up like a flaming fire against you that no one will be able to extinguish (Jeremiah 4:4)’ and; ‘it will burn like a fire that cannot be put out because of the evil you have done (Jeremiah 21:12 see also 20:48)’.
The fire that is not quenched is rendered as a fire that eternally torments but more likely it is unquenchable in the sense that it will not be extinguished and the worm undying in the sense that the flesh will be consumed which emphasises the finality rather than the duration of punishment – for who can resist God's will?
In Matthew 8:12, 22:13, 25:30 and Luke 13:28-30 Jesus describes how the unfaithful are ‘thrown outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gashing of teeth’. The imagery most poignantly conjures the sense of anguish but since the image lacks a temporal marker why should we assume that such anguish will last eternally? This is simply reading more into the text than what is there.
The Lukian parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31) is traditionally placed in the intermediate state[5] and if this thesis be correct then the parable does not bear on this discussion at all. But some have argued that Paul’s eschatology coupled with the second temple expectation that judgment will be experienced immediately upon death, does not point toward an intermediate state, but the final state. But even if we were to grant this point there are still no eternal markers that help make the case for eternal punishment. The most we can say (and it is not obvious that we should) is that the wicked will be aware of their punishment. 
We are then left with the two texts that more forcefully defend Tertullian and Augustine. In the first the wicked ‘go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life (Matthew 25:46)’; the second is the apocalyptic vision of Revelation 14:9-11.
Augustine argued that because Jesus uses the adjective anionios to compare ‘eternal life’ with ‘eternal punishment’ then the punishment must be eternal just as heaven is eternal. To deny this fact, claimed Augustine, was to deny that heaven is eternal – a forceful argument to be sure.
But several Greek scholars have pointed out that although aion is often translated as eternal in the King James tradition- ‘age’ is the better rendering. We see this elsewhere in the New Testament for if we render aion as eternal or everlasting in these cases we get nonsensical renderings as ‘what will be the sign…..of the end of the eternity (Matthew 24:3)’, ‘since the eternity began (John 9:32)’, ‘not only in this eternity but also in that which is to come (Ephesians 1:21)’, ‘in the eternities to come (Ephesians 2:7)’,’at the end of eternities (Hebrews 9:26)’.
Instead Beecher notes ‘the Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Old Testament and was the bible of the early church. The word aion occurs in it about four hundred times in every variety of combination. The adjective aionios derived from it, is used over one hundred times…..Aion denoted an age, great or small, so the adjective aionios expressed the idea pertaining to or belonging to the aion, whether great or small. But in every case this adjective derives its character and duration from the aion to which it refers[6]’.
How then should we apply duration to Matthew’s comparison of heaven and hell? After all, to Jonah aion lasted three days, to Solomon’s temple 400 years, and to God it encompasses and transcends time altogether. Of central import then is the relative nature of the word. For example in Habakkuk 3:6 - ‘the ancient [aionios] mountains crumbled and the age-old hills collapsed – but he marches on forever [aionios]-(NIV Habakkuk 3:6)’. The mountains are not everlasting (aionios) because they pertain to a finite earth but God’s ways are everlasting (aionios) because they pertain to an eternal God. Similarly in Matthew 25:46 aionios may refer to an eternal heaven if God sustains it eternally and a temporal age of punishment that ceases when God makes all things new (Rev 21:5).
Pivotal to the rendering then is God’s intention. According to Heschel[7] there is a profound difference between God’s love and God’s anger. ‘His anger is but for a moment; his favour is for a lifetime (Psalms 30:5)’; in overflowing wrath for a moment I hid my face from you, but with everlasting love I will have compassion on you (Isaiah 54:8)’ while according to Exodus 34:6 and Psalms 103:8 God is reluctant to get angry but eager to show mercy because his love endures forever (Psalms 100:5, 103:9, 106:1, 136:10-26).
God’s anger is always described as a moment, something that happens rather than something that abides. The prophets never speak of an angry God as though anger was His disposition. From an eschatological perspective then, should we not equally expect His anger to last a moment while His love endures forever?
That leaves us with the second passage cited to support eternal punishment; ‘If anyone worships the beast and his image and receives his mark……he will be tormented with burning sulphur in the presence of the holy angels and of the Lamb. And the smoke of their torment rises forever and ever. There is no rest day or night (Revelation 14:9-11)’.
The imagery of burning sulphur comes from Sodom (Genesis 19:24, 28). It signifies a wasteland where no plants grow (Deuteronomy 29:23). On first pass we must be careful not to flatten the imagery that harks back to God’s judgment of Edom where the ‘land will become blazing pitch! It will not be quenched night and day; its smoke will rise forever (Isaiah 34:9-10)’.

The phrase no rest day and night (Revelation 14:11,13) compares to Isaiah 34:10 where God’s judgment is final - for who can resist God’s will? Its unstoppable nature does not necessarily mean it will last forever. 
Second, the smoke rising forever and ever no longer rises from Edom. Why then treat the apocalyptic phrase ‘smoke of their torment rises forever and ever’ as literal prose when Isaiah’s phrase ‘its smoke will rise forever and ever’ is obviously an idiom[8]? Beale[9] concedes; ‘the imagery of Rev 14:10 could indicate a great judgment that will be remembered forever, not one that leads to eternal suffering’.
Given the multiple references to death and destruction coupled with some doubt over how to treat aionios in Matthew 25:46 and the symbolic nature of the apocalypse, a convincing case for eternal suffering cannot be defended from the biblical text alone - ‘A fixture of Christian theology for over 16 centuries hell went away in a hurry’ observes Mohler [10]. ‘Historian Martin Marty reduced the situation down to this: ‘Hell disappeared. No one noticed.’…..The sudden disappearance of hell amounts to a theological mystery of sorts. How did a doctrine so centrally enshrined in the system of theology suffer such a wholesale abandonment[11]’?

Instead, the weight of scripture favours a future resurrection and annihilation of the wicked on the great day of the Lord. But a future resurrection for the sole purpose of judgment is problematic for this annihilation thesis because a god who brings people back to life only to re-destroy them (Hebrew 9:27) if their name is not written in the book of life is no better than a god who would sentence souls to eternal perdition. Final resurrection is then problematic to this eschatology.
 
But this is not the end of the issue for in his Adam - Christ pattern (Romans 5) Paul argues that life has already begun through Christ's resurrection. Pauline eschatology then transitions from the now  in Christ, to being hidden in Christ (Colossians 3:3) to the great day of the Lord which has caused our problem - 'for this end Christ died and lived again, that He might be Lord of both the living and the dead (Romans 14:9).'

Moltmann 'understands this in the following sense; In dying, Christ became the brother of the dying. In death, he became the brother of the dead. In his resurrection - as the one risen - he embraces the dead and the living, and takes them with him on his way to the consummation of God's kingdom. If I understand it rightly, it means that the dead are dead and not yet risen, but they are already 'in Christ' and are with Him on the way to his future[12]'.

For Moltmann the existence of the dead in the community of Christ is not yet a resurrection from the dead but nevertheless it is a being in Christ. 'My desire is to depart and be with Christ' says Paul (Philippians 1:23). By this reading the dead are not separated from Christ so they are not sleeping, but they are not yet risen either.

John affirms that those who believe in Christ have already passed from death to life (John 5:24) and will live even if they die (John 11:25). For John eternal life that follows the 'first resurrection' happens in the now (salvation), the second death happens in the then; on the great day of the Lord where death will be finally defeated (Revelations 20:14). -  'O death, where is thy string? Oh hell, where is thy victory (1 Corinthians 15:54)'. In between we are hidden in Christ - in the now.

So what exactly does Paul mean by hidden in Christ? Paul seems to anticipate this question in 1 Corinthians 15:35. This earthly body is planted in death but will grow into an eternal body. There is continuity, in some sense things will start where they finished off, this body, this earth will be redeemed. But there is discontinuity too - what is perishable, dishonourable will become imperishable, glorious. 

And just as we get to the details that would settle our eschatology Paul's metaphor gives way to praise - 'where o death, is your victory? where O death is your sting?' But thanks be to God! He gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ! (verse 54-57)'

So it seems Paul's only concern is to remind us that if we trust Jesus we will have the final victory - so stand firm! Accept what you can know - that through Jesus the life given you through the resurrection has already begun, in the here and the now; but live in the hope that life will extend beyond the grave too.  

And so we must speculate. Perhaps being hidden in Christ hints at a relational ontology in which the relationality and narrativity that constitutes who we are exists apart from neural correlates and embodiment insofar as they are persevered in God's own being?[13] Perhaps our experiences post mortem are timeless and so the point of death and the point of judgment coincide even as they remain distinct from our current temporal perspective? Perhaps there is a process for repentance post mortem? In which case judgment might not be fait accompli. In the final analysis we cannot know if any of these explanations are true; but only that each is consistent with the annihilation thesis. 

So no matter how we choose to render the eschatological haze, one thing is certain; and that is that we have drifted sufficiently far from Augustine's dualism with its all too wooden rendering of immortal souls residing in either eternal bliss or eternal perdition (the 'big sort') to provide necessary space for theologically superior, less culturally determined, hypotheses.
 


[1] David Kimhi in 1200 CE quotes ‘Gehenna is a repugnant place, into which filth and cadavers are thrown, and in which fires perpetually burn in order to consume the filth and bones; on which account, by analogy, the judgment of the wicked is called Gehenna’. Cited in Bailey ‘Gehenna’.
[2] Resurrection of the flesh Tertullian
[3] Paul on Immortality Bruce F 469
[4] As quoted by White, Life in Christ, 365 from a letter.
[5] A theoretical temporary state between this life and the final state presumed necessary as heaven lies beyond the final judgment which in turn lays in our future.
[6] Beecher E History of Opinions on the Scriptural Doctrine of Retribution NY Appleton 1887
[7] The Prophets Heshel A J 1962 New York: Harper and Row
[8] Typically in the prophets this type of language refers to past events, not everlasting events
[9] The Book of Revelations Beale pp 761-762
[10] Mohler quoted in: Marty, Martin E. Hell Disappeared. No One Noticed. A Civic Argument. HTR 78 1985:381-98
[11] Perhaps at last the Platonic grip of Christianity is beginning to slip?

[12] The coming of God : Christian Eschatology Moltmann J

[13] Body, Soul and Human Life: The nature of humanity in the bible. Green J. B. 2008 Baker Academic

No comments:

Post a Comment